Category: Disorders

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By: Dr. Nicole Bosse, PsyD, Lindner Center of HOPE

 

OCD is a disorder that responds very well to a form of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy called Exposure and Response Prevention. Brain imaging studies found that people with OCD have excessive levels of activity in the orbital cortex, the caudate nucleus, the cingulate gyrus, and the thalamus. Differences are unrelated to intelligence and most other cognitive abilities. These studies also show that the brain changes in response to Exposure and Response Prevention. The overactive parts of the brain become less active and similar to others without OCD after engaging in Exposure and Response Prevention.

Exposure and Response Prevention consists of confronting what you are afraid and abstaining from the related compulsions. Specifically, exposures are purposeful and gradual confronting and maintaining contact with feared objects, thoughts, or images to allow the anxiety to rise, peak, and subside. Response Prevention is the halting of neutralizing actions and/or thoughts (i.e., compulsions) to allow habituation to a feared stimulus (e.g., not washing after touching a doorknob). This is done with the help of a trained therapist. It is a form of therapy that is collaborative and the individual works with the therapist to brainstorm various exposure ideas to start forming a hierarchy.

A hierarchy ranges from items that bring about low to high distress/anxiety. An example hierarchy for someone that has a fear of snakes could look like: reading about snakes, looking at pictures of snakes, watching videos of snakes, looking at snakes behind glass, being in the room with someone holding a Gardner snake, being in the room with someone holding a boa constrictor, touching a Gardner snake while someone else is holding it, touching a boa constrictor that someone else is holding, holding a Gardner snake, and being in a bathtub with boa constrictor snakes. The last item can be something that wouldn’t necessarily be done for exposures, it is just used as a something to help scale other exposures.

There are two types of exposures I usually talk about with patients, planned vs. spontaneous. Planned exposures can take various forms, from in vivo to imaginal. In vivo exposures are exposures that are completed in person, for example touching things that could be contaminated with germs or breaking down avoidance of certain people for fear of harming them. Imaginal exposures are usually implemented when it is impossible/unethical to do in person exposures. For example, the individual can be instructed to write sentences about hurting someone or write an imaginal script detailing their worst fear. These exposures can be done over and over in one sitting until it starts to get boring.

Spontaneous exposures are things that happen throughout the day that are unplanned and typically cause significant anxiety. For instance, if someone is afraid of germs and someone sneezes on food etc. With spontaneous exposures, I usually instruct individual to do one of two things, either abstain from the compulsion or do something called ritual weakening. Ritual weakening is completing the compulsion but doing it differently than the OCD desires. For example, postponing washing hands or writing down that you are giving into a compulsion in order to be able to do the compulsion. The idea is it makes it slightly less convenient to do the compulsion, which over time weakens OCD.

In sum, Exposure and Response Prevention is a very successful form of treatment for OCD. To be effective, the individual must be willing and motivated. An individual is never made to do something they are uncomfortable with. It is best to go slow in order for the individual to learn their anxiety will decrease over time.

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Sidney Hays, MSW, LISW, DARTT, Outpatient Therapist, Lindner Center of HOPE

“Trauma” has been a buzzword in recent years. Accompanying it has been discourse around what counts as trauma. From the extreme of exaggerating minor inconveniences as trauma to the opposite end of the spectrum which attempts to gatekeep this term, reserving it for life threatening events only.

These extremes create confusion around not only the definition of the term and related concepts, but unnecessarily polarizes an already sensitive topic. As people debate the validity of traumas, it often reinforces the harmful self-judgements adopted by those who have experienced trauma. This reinforcement is often what keeps people stuck in self-blame and blocks actual healing.

It is common for those who have experienced trauma to blame themselves. This occurs for many reasons. One of the most obvious reasons lies in cultural messaging related to victim blaming, exaggerated self-reliance, and toxic positivity. The messaging of victim blaming often sounds like: What were you wearing? Were you drunk? Why didn’t you leave? Why didn’t you fight back? Why were you there in the first place? Are you really going to talk about your mom like that? Rather than holding those who caused the damage accountable, the responsibility gets shifted to the person who experienced it. This causes significant shame, often keeping people stuck in trauma responses and unhelpful patterns.

The worlds of toxic positivity and “just do it” often dismiss the significance of trauma, which impedes the ability to process and heal from trauma. It can sound something like: But you have so much to be grateful for. Your parents weren’t that bad. Other people have it much worse. Just count your blessings. Just decide to change and make it happen. You just need to (insert unhelpful platitude here). These responses encourage us to ignore the impacts of our trauma, which leads to trauma being stored in the body.

Another explanation of the self-blame that often accompanies trauma is that it gives the person who experienced it a false sense of control. If it was my fault, that means I should have just done better. If it was my fault, I can control the situation. If it was my fault, I can make sure it never happens again. Our brains are often much more comfortable with the notion that we messed up than the reality that other people and many events are outside our control.

Like with most debates and continuums, the surrounding discourse usually harms those who live a life of less privilege. Expanding our understanding of trauma and its impacts creates space for healing and growth.

The problem with many definitions of trauma lies in the focus of the definition. Most center around the event that occurred. However, this focus is incorrect and shortsighted. The most important factor in defining trauma is actually related to how a person experiences a moment, event, or series of events. Because of this, what is experienced as trauma will vary between person to person and moment to moment, which impacts how the body physiologically responds to a perceived threat.

Dr. Peter Levine, the developer of Somatic Experiencing, states that “trauma lives in the body, not the event.” When our nervous system perceives something as a threat, it reacts in kind, regardless of whether or not there is an objective threat. Most of us have heard of the fight (yelling, hitting, approaching), flight (running away from, avoiding), and freeze (immobilization, dissociation, disconnection) responses to a threat without fully understanding how these reactions come to be… These are states of our autonomic nervous system, which controls the automatic functions of the body (blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, digestion, hormones, immune response). This means that these reactions are unconscious, automatic, and the result of our nervous system attempting to protect us from a perceived threat.

When our brains perceive something as a threat, our nervous system does not always choose the most effective response. Our responses are informed by a lifetime’s cycles of threat and response. Because of this, the response of our autonomic nervous system is often the one we’ve used most in the past, or the response we wish we could have used then but didn’t have access or ability to use. This can explain many confusing patterns in our lives, such as a person who experienced emotional neglect as a child might struggle to share their emotions and needs even with a partner in a safe, healthy relationship down the line. These patterns require intentional work to mend to get our nervous system on board with responding in ways that may be more effective, or better in line with our values. In order to do this, we need adequate resources to increase our capacity to tolerate threats and distress.

Many factors impact our ability to cope with perceived threats such as: resources, support, physical health, and the level to which our needs are met. When these factors are well resourced, we have increased capacity to tolerate threat and distress. However, the inverse is also true. When lacking in any of these areas, our capacity drops.

Linda Thai brilliantly defines trauma as, “too sudden, too little, or too much of something for too long or not long enough without adequate time, space, permission, protection, or resources.” This inclusive definition accounts for the many nuances of the human experience, including generational trauma, and trauma resulting from racism, sexism, homophobia, fat phobia, colonization, and other various systems of oppression. Mindfulness of these nuances creates space for the full spectrum of human suffering to be seen, processed, and healed.

When we create this kind of space, increase access to resources, validate, and protect one another, we can be agents of healing in a world severely lacking at.

“If you want to improve the world, start by making people feel safer.”

-Dr. Stephen Porges

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What is Panic Disorder?

Panic Disorder is an anxiety disorder that occurs when someone experiences recurrent, spontaneous, unexpected, and untriggered panic attacks. This leads to preoccupation with and fear of experiencing another attack. Panic attacks occur when there is an intense physical surge of symptoms that quickly reach their peak, usually in a few minutes. A panic attack can be felt very differently from one person to another. A combination of the following symptoms is typically experienced during a panic attack:

  • Heart palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate
  • Sweating/perspiration
  • Trembling or shaking
  • Sensations of shortness of breath or feeling smothered
  • Feelings of choking
  • Chest pain or discomfort
  • Nausea or abdominal distress
  • Feeling dizziness, unsteadiness, light-headedness, or faintness
  • Chills or feeling over-heated
  • Numbness or tingling sensations
  • Feelings of depersonalization (unreality)
  • Feelings of derealization (being detached from oneself)
  • Fear of losing control or “going crazy”
  • Fear of death or dying
  • Sense of impending doom or danger

At least one of these panic attacks is followed by one month or more of persistent concern or worry about having another attack and/or a significant change in behavioral pattern (typically avoidance of certain places or situations).

Panic attacks can be viewed as a “false alarm” related to a fight-or-flight response to a mis-perceived threat. Fight-or-flight is a natural human reaction that prepares us to defend ourselves or flee the situation. When someone becomes hyperaware of their body’s sensations, they may interpret a sensation as a threat when there’s not one.

Panic disorder affects 2-3% of Americans and is affects women roughly twice as frequently as it affects men. The onset of Panic Disorder typically occurs in adulthood, but can also affect children and teens.

What is Agoraphobia?

Agoraphobia occurs when someone persistently avoids situations in which they might become embarrassed or have difficulty escaping. This is often the result of fear of having a panic attack in public. This can manifest in fear of using public transportation (such as planes, buses, trains), being in open spaces (such as parking lots, malls, or stadiums), being in enclosed spaces (such as elevators, stores, or cars), being in crowds or standing in line, or even being outside the home alone.

Panic Disorder can be present with or without Agoraphobia, but these disorders commonly present together. When they occur together, Agoraphobia usually develops following an adverse experience, such as having a panic attack in one of these places/situations in which the person feels trapped, embarrassed, or fearful. Over time, avoidance of these situations and places reinforces one’s fear, leading to further avoidance.

How are Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia treated?

People with Panic Disorder often present to emergency departments or their physician’s office due to their uncomfortable physical sensations (often fearing that they are suffering from a heart attack). While it is important to rule out any physical cause for these symptoms, repeated trips to the ER and doctor visits can also reinforce the symptoms. Instead, it is important to receive appropriate mental health treatment for Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia.

Treatment for Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia typically includes of a combination of medication and psychotherapy. Medications commonly used to treat Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), beta blockers, and benzodiazepines. SSRIs and SNRIs are a category of antidepressants that are also useful in treating anxiety disorders such as Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. Beta blockers can be used to help control some of the physical symptoms of panic attacks such as a rapid heart rate. Benzodiazepines are useful to provide temporary relief of acute anxiety symptoms. These medications can be very helpful, but they should be used with caution due to their potential for dependence. Benzodiazepines can also interfere with the ability to habituate or learn that situations are safe. Only your health care provider should determine whether these medications are appropriate for use and you should not discontinue any medications without consulting with your provider.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is an evidence-based type of psychotherapy that is helpful in treating Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. This therapy helps people to change their behavior and their way of thinking. Various CBT techniques are useful in treatment of these anxiety disorders. Interoceptive exposures involve purposely provoking uncomfortable physical sensations (heart pounding, shortness of breath, dizziness) to desensitize oneself to them. This should be done with the guidance of a trained mental health professional to ensure that it is done correctly. Similarly, gradually limiting avoidance of circumstances and places (such as driving or going into stores) that are typically avoided allows someone to become comfortable and gain confidence in these situations. Breathing and relaxation exercises can help to lower someone’s overall level of anxiety to prevent them from having a panic attack. And finally challenging faulty beliefs, such shifting from thinking “I’m in danger” to “my body is telling me that I’m in danger, but I’m actually safe” can be helpful in lowering related anxiety. Other helpful interventions include biofeedback and mindfulness. Additional lifestyle changes such as reducing one’s intake of caffeine, sugar, nicotine, regular exercise and sleep, and limiting checking vital signs can be helpful in lowering anxiety.

If you believe that you or someone you know is suffering from Panic Disorder and/or Agoraphobia, it is important to seek the help of a mental health provider. These disorders can become debilitating without proper treatment but can become manageable if properly treated.

by Jennifer B. Wilcox, PsyD
Staff Psychologist, Lindner Center of HOPE

 

 

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by: Ronald Freudenberg, Jr., MA, LPCC-S
Outpatient Therapist, Lindner Center of HOPE

Anxiety can take many forms.  Anxiety is also one of the most common reasons one might seek out mental health treatment.  In this blog, we will explore some of the most frequently occurring anxiety disorders, as well as panic attacks, which can be part of a Panic Disorder (but do not have to be, as will be discussed later).  We will also look at effective strategies for preventing, treating, and managing anxiety disorders and symptoms of anxiety.

Regardless of how anxiety may present for one person, the various anxiety disorders all have at least one thing in common…fear.  Whether it is described as worry, nervousness, feeling “on edge,” or something else, the basic emotion of anxiety is fear.  We all experience some anxiety sometimes, and in fact, you may have heard that a little bit of anxiety can be a good thing from time to time.  It serves a protective purpose when it tells us to avoid people, things, or situations which could be dangerous.  Anxiety can also help us by keeping us on our toes and motivating us to perform well under pressure, such as when pulling an all-nighter before an exam, giving a big presentation at work, or playing in the championship game.  Yet, as with any negative emotion, anxiety can become problematic when it becomes too frequent, too intense, lasts for too long, or interferes with our lives and our ability to function well, as can happen in the context of the following types of anxiety disorders.

Types of Anxiety Disorders

Adjustment Disorder

Sometimes, one may feel excessively stressed or anxious about a certain thing or things in one’s life.  People often describe this as “situational”, and the clinical term is an Adjustment Disorder with Anxiety.  (It can also present with depression, or other emotional/behavioral responses.)  An example might be if one would experience something stressful like the loss of a job.  Of course, most people would likely feel some anxiety about this.  However, an adjustment disorder is thought of as when one’s response is out of proportion with what may be typically expected.  With this type of anxiety, once the stressor has resolved, so will the anxiety.  So, when that same individual lands a new job, he/she/they will feel better, simply put.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Generalized Anxiety Disorder is very much like it sounds.  This is when a person feels generally anxious, worried, and nervous much of the time (more than half of their days) about any number of different subjects.  In order to meet criteria for the diagnosis, one must experience this type of anxiety for at least six months, find it difficult to control the worry, and present with at least some of the following additional symptoms: restlessness, trouble concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, sleep difficulties, and/or trouble concentrating.  Although every person is unique, classically, a person with GAD may tend toward long-term anxiousness, worry excessively about many things (such as finances, family, work, health, world events, etc.), and lay awake in bed at night doing so.

Phobias

Specific Phobias are another type of anxiety disorder in which a person experiences strong fear and anxiety about a specific thing (object or situation), and actively avoids that thing or endures exposure to it with intense discomfort.  In this writer’s experience it is relatively rare for this to be a person’s main reason for seeking treatment, at least in outpatient settings.  Perhaps that may be because many anxiety-provoking subjects can be pretty easy to avoid.  (When was the last time you unexpectedly came across a snake?)

Social Anxiety Disorder

An exception to anxiety that is easily avoided, is Social Phobia, also known as Social Anxiety Disorder.  Social Phobia exists when the source of a person’s fear is social or performance situations in which one may feel subject to scrutiny or judgment by others.  Social anxiety may arise when one feels uncomfortable mingling with new people at a party, walking through halls of (seemingly) glaring eyes at school, or giving a speech.  From an evolutionary perspective, if anxiety helps us to avoid dangerous things which threaten our survival, being ostracized from one’s tribe and forced to try to survive alone in the wilderness is near the top of that list.  With this in mind, it is little wonder that public speaking is often cited as people’s number one fear.

 

 

 

 

 

Panic Disorder and Attacks

Finally, let us explore the issue of panic.  So, what is a panic attack? Panic Attacks, according to the DSM-5, occur when a person experiences an “abrupt surge” of anxiety which reaches a peak within minutes and includes (at least four of) the following symptoms.

Symptoms of Panic Disorder and Attacks

  • Racing/pounding heart
  • Sweating
  • Shaking
  • Shortness of breath
  • Choking sensations
  • Chest pain
  • Nausea
  • Dizziness or feeling light-headed
  • Chills or heat sensations
  • Numbness/tingling
  • Feeling of unreality or detachment from one’s self
  • Fear of losing control, “going crazy,” or dying

When one develops a fear of having additional panic attacks and exhibits maladaptive behaviors designed to avoid or limit the likelihood of them, this is called a Panic Disorder.  Further, if one’s fear and avoidance includes public situations away from home, open or enclosed crowded spaces from which it would be difficult to escape should panic-like symptoms arise, that is called Agoraphobia (which may, but does not have to, co-occur with Panic Disorder).  Also, according to the most recent edition of the DSM, panic attacks are now thought to be a feature which may occur in the context of a spectrum of other mental health disorders, substance use disorders, and some medical conditions.

Treatment of Anxiety, including Treatment for Panic Disorder and Attacks

When it comes to treatment of anxiety, it is unrealistic for one to expect to live out the rest of their days, anxiety-free.  One can no more be “cured” from anxiety, than from happiness, sadness, or anger.  These are basic human emotions, and there are reasons why we have them.  However, the good news is that anxiety symptoms, whether mild or debilitating, can be effectively prevented, treated and managed, usually by a multi-faceted approach.

How to Manage Anxiety, including Managing Panic Disorder and Attacks

Medications can often be a very helpful part of a person’s treatment plan.  Antidepressants, such as SSRIs, and some SNRIs, are commonly used to treat ongoing symptoms of anxiety, while benzodiazepines (such as Xanax, Klonopin, Valium, or Ativan) are sometimes used on a shorter-term or as-needed basis to alleviate acute anxiety or panic.  (Caution is usually advised with the latter due to their addictive potential.)  Some antihistamines, beta-blockers, and anticonvulsants have been shown to be helpful for anxiety as well.

Various forms of talk therapy can be beneficial by providing a safe, supportive experience in which a person can process fears and learn to implement rational coping thoughts to overcome them.  Therapy can also assist one to form new behaviors to mitigate symptoms of anxiety.  Regardless of the specific therapy used, a common element is learning to approach, rather than avoid, that which causes one’s anxiety.  Anxiety and fear lead to avoidance by definition, while summoning the courage to face and overcome our fears cuts them down to size (this is commonly referred to as “exposure”).  Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (CBT), Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT, as well as Radically Open DBT), and mindfulness-based psychotherapies are common effective treatment approaches.  Mindfulness can help one learn to be in and accept the present, increasing one’s capacity to tolerate feelings of discomfort while reducing anxious thoughts about the future.

Treating and Managing Panic Disorder and Attacks

In the case of panic attacks, it is advised to first rule-out any medical causes of the symptoms which can mimic other medical issues, specifically heart disease.  If another person is present during a panic attack, they provide support and reassurance, helping the person to talk through it or asking what they need that may be helpful.  In addition to medication, there are other helpful strategies for panic symptoms.

Strategies for Managing Symptoms of Panic Disorder and Attacks

  • Breathing or relaxation exercises
  • Physical exercise
  • Mindfulness/grounding exercises (such as a sensory check-in)

Coping Skills for Anxiety, including Panic Disorder and Attacks

Therapy can also help a person develop effective coping skills for preventing and managing anxiety.  These may vary depending on personal preferences, but can include increasing social supports, problem-solving for stressors, journaling, exploring spirituality, exercise/movement, etc.  Practicing healthy self-care habits (such as getting regular exercise and restful sleep, managing health conditions, and minimizing/avoiding alcohol, caffeine and other drugs) and generally trying to live a balanced lifestyle can simultaneously help to reduce the stress one may experience in life, while increasing one’s ability to effectively cope with anxiety.

Summary:  Anxiety is a common human experience, but persistent and debilitating anxiety, is often what causes people to seek treatment. There are a variety of types of anxiety. Panic or Panic Attacks are among the types of anxiety. Learn what are panic attacks, symptoms and causes and treatments for panic attacks and other anxiety disorders.

Learn more about panic attacks and anxiety.

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Radically Open Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (RO DBT) is a treatment developed by Thomas Lynch for those who develop disorders associated with an overcontrolled (OC) personality.  OC individuals are often described as reserved and cautious, not very expressive with their emotions, and great at delaying gratification. OC individuals tend to be strong rule followers and feel a high sense of obligation in their lives (i.e., go to a birthday party because they feel they have to rather than wanting to do so). However, at times, they may experience “emotional leakage,” or emotionally breaking down once they are in private after holding it all together all day in public. An OC personality can be really helpful in some ways. These are the people that get their work done no matter what, show up to work on time every day, work through all the nitty, gritty details of a project, and follow through on their word. They can be very organized and methodical, and they are great at planning for long-term gains (i.e., saving to buy a house). However, they can be rigid and inflexible at time (i.e., get very upset if a restaurant lost a dinner reservation and struggle with figuring out where else to go to eat) and may have difficulty receiving feedback. Patients that may benefit from this treatment include those with chronic depression and anxiety, autism spectrum disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder, and Anorexia Nervosa.

Radically Open Dialectical Behavior Therapy for Overcontrolled Personality

The biosocial theory behind RO DBT explains that OC individuals have brains that zoom in on the negative or threatening aspects of a situation before seeing the positives. This predisposition interacts with being raised in an environment that encourages or praises high levels of self-control in one’s life (i.e., doing homework without one’s parents needing to remind them to do so), performing at a high level (i.e., getting good grades, doing well in sports, receiving accolades), and avoiding making errors. These individuals end up avoiding uncertain situations, hold back their emotions out of fear that others may see them as being out of control, and become guarded in social situations, appearing to others as withdrawn.  Their lack of vulnerability and difficulty expressing what they are really feeling leads others to struggle to relate to them, so they end up feeling lonely and isolated.  Thus, RO DBT operates under the assumption that increasing connectedness to others can improve psychological functioning, thus targeting emotional expression. Additionally, RO DBT encourages being open to hearing other points of view so that one can learn as well as learning to be flexible in responding to varying situations.

Thomas Lynch describes that the five main behavioral targets of RO DBT include 1) being socially distant or reserved, 2) inflexible, rule-governed behaviors, 3) focusing on the details rather than the big picture of a situation and being overly cautious, 4) demonstrating emotional expressions that are inconsistent with how one is really feeling, and 5) comparing oneself to others, leading to resentment and envy. In RO DBT, patients work with their therapists on identifying personal goals consistent with these behavioral targets, connecting these goals to the problems that brought them into treatment. For instance, a patient may bring up that he/she would like to deepen relationships with others, be more flexible when things don’t go according to plan, or let go of past grudges to help fight depression and anxiety.

Radically Open DBT vs DBT

Many incorrectly assume that RO DBT and Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) are the same thing. While RO DBT has some similarities with DBT, these are two very different treatments. DBT primarily benefits those who have an undercontrolled (UC) personality. UC traits include being impulsive, sensation-seeking, wearing one’s heart on one’s sleeve, and acting in the here and now.  Thus, DBT can be helpful for those that have impulsive control problems, such as those with borderline personality disorder, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and substance abuse disorders. Both RO DBT and DBT combine individual therapy with skills training classes, involve tracking emotions and behaviors via diary cards, allow for telephone consultation with the individual therapist, and involve consultation teams for the group and individual therapists. However, DBT has a stronger focus on self-regulation to target emotion dysregulation whereas RO DBT is much more focused on helping individuals address social signaling and connectedness with others.

For more information see our Comprehensive Guide to RO-DBT.

References:

Lynch, T. R. (2018). Radically Open Dialectical Behavior Therapy. New Harbinger Publications.

Lynch, T. R. (2018). The Skills Training Manual for Radically Open Dialectical Behavior Therapy. New Harbinger Publications.

Elizabeth Mariutto, PsyD

Lindner Center of HOPE, Psychologist and Clinical Director of Partial Hospitalization/Intensive Outpatient Adult Eating Disorder Services

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Elizabeth Mariutto, PsyD, CEDS

 

 

 

 

When the average person is asked to describe eating disorders, body image concerns are one of the most identified symptoms.  However, not everyone with an eating disorder struggles with body image.  Those with Avoidant and Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) avoid or restrict certain foods, but do not do so out of fear of weight gain, desire to lose weight, or body dissatisfaction. Instead, those with ARFID limit their eating based on sensory features of the food, fear of something bad happening when one eats, or a lack of interest in eating (Thomas & Eddy, 2019).

However, ARFID is more than picky eating. Those with ARFID are highly selective in what they eat, and this selectivity leads to some type of impairment in their lives (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Children or teenagers may not grow as expected, leading to pediatricians being concerned that they have not followed the typical growth curve that had been evidenced earlier in their lives. Those with ARFID may lose a significant amount of weight unintentionally. Others end up needing to rely on oral supplements or nasogastric tube feedings to get in sufficient energy, and those with ARFID may display nutritional deficiencies.  Additionally, many with ARFID struggle socially (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Many get-togethers, holidays, and celebrations with family and friends revolve around food, which can be anxiety and shame-inducing for those that eat more selectively, often leading to avoidance of such social gatherings and consequently, problems in relationships.

The same factors that lead to the onset of ARFID are worsened by its symptoms, which creates a cyclical pattern. Those who develop ARFID may experience more intense sensory experiences (Thomas & Eddy, 2019). They may be more sensitive to textures and/or may be a “supertaster” and pick up on more subtle variations of flavor than others. However, eating the same few foods repeatedly can lead to sensory-specific satiety, leading to those few foods becoming more aversive with time. Furthermore, if nutritional deficiencies develop, the taste of new foods can be altered, thus leaving someone to feel they have very few tolerable options. Others with ARFID may start out simply not having much interest in eating. When they eat less as a natural result, their fullness cues start kicking in prematurely and hunger cues dissipate, leading to eating even less.  Lastly, those who develop ARFID after having some type of aversive experience around food (i.e., choking) start to avoid the food that led to the negative experience hoping to avoid the same event. This expands into avoidance of similar foods as well.  The avoidance of these foods reinforces the fear, as these individuals do not have recent fear-countering experiences to teach them that they can safely consume these foods. Avoidance leads to increased anxiety, making the fear more entrenched.

ARFID treatment approaches resemble those for other forms of eating disorders but may include some modifications that more closely resemble the exposure treatment that is often used for obsessive compulsive disorder and anxiety disorders.  A treatment provider will likely do a thorough evaluation and case formulation of what factors need addressed in treatment.  First and foremost, patients may require medical stabilization to manage any of the acute health concerns that have risen with malnutrition.  Second, to prevent further medical problems from occurring and to begin the process of nutritional stabilization, clients often need to increase the overall volume of food.

There has not been much research on treatment for ARFID, although a modified version of cognitive behavioral therapy, CBT-AR, is being researched for ARFID and is showing promise (Thomas et al., 2020; Thomas et al., 2021). CBT-AR pulls from existing eating disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and anxiety disorder treatments and extensively educates the patient on how the disorder develops and is maintained, nutritional deficiencies and the importance of volume and variety, then gradually helps patients expose themselves to the foods that they have been avoiding (Thomas & Eddy, 2019).  Furthermore, Family-Based Treatment, which is a front-line treatment for adolescents with eating disorders, has been recently modified to address ARFID more specifically, also showing promising results (Lock, Sadeh-Sharvit, & L’Insalata, 2019). This treatment, which addresses the eating behaviors directly and conveys the seriousness of the eating disorder, empowers parents to refeed their child, takes a non-blaming approach to the illness, and helps parents and patients separate the illness from their identity (Lock et al., 2018).

Getting professional support can help patients with ARFID improve medically, nutritionally, psychologically, and socially. While therapists can provide support and teach specific techniques, the patient ultimately has a significant say into what foods to incorporate, when, and how.  With persistence, those with ARFID can eat with much greater variety and flexibility.

References

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.

Lock. J., Robinson, A., Sadeh-Sharvit, S., Rosania, K., Osipov, L et al. (2018). Applying family-based treatment (FBT) to three clinical presentations of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder: Similarities and differences from FBT for anorexia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 52, 439-446. doi: 10.1002/eat.22994

Lock, J., Sadeh-Sharvit, S., L’Insalata, A. (2019). Feasibility of conducting a randomized clinical trial using family-based treatment for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 52, 6, 746-751. doi: 10.1002/eat.23077

Thomas, J. J., Becker, K. R., Kuhnle, M. C., Jo, J. H., Harshman, S. G. et al (2020). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (CBT-AR): Feasibility, acceptability, and proof-of-concept for children and adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 53, 10, 1636-1646. doi: 10.1002/eat.23355

Thomas, J. J., Becker, K. R., Breithaupt, L., Burton Murray, H., Jo, J. H., et al. (2021). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adults with avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder. Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy, 31, 1, 47-55. doi: 10.1016/j.jbct.2020.10.004

Thomas, J. J., & Eddy, K. T. (2019). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder: Children, Adolescents, and Adults. Cambridge: University Printing House.

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By: Laurie Little, PsyD 

Lindner Center of HOPE, Staff Psychologist

Plants that have psychedelic properties have been used across all continents for centuries to aid in rituals, recreation and in healing. Over time, researchers have found that psychedelic medicines can also be profoundly effective in treating mental illnesses such as depression and anxiety and in ameliorating the effects of trauma.

Although a psychedelic medicine can be derived from a plant or created in a lab, the user will experience what can be described Laurie Little, PsyD as non-ordinary or altered states of consciousness. These states may include hallucinations, unusual perceptual or sensory experiences or an altered sense of space and time. Many users of psychedelic medicines also report profound experiences of inner peace, compassion towards themselves and others and deeply meaningful spiritual realizations. When combined with psychotherapy, psychedelic medicines have the potential to heal in ways often not seen with traditional therapies.

The psychedelic medicines that are most often being studied with mental health conditions are psilocybin (derived from mushrooms), LSD, Ketamine, Ayahuasca and MDMA. There have been numerous studies showing the effectiveness of psychedelic medicines on treatment resistant depression, end of life anxiety, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, eating disorders and substance use disorders.

One of the most rigorously studied medicine is MDMA for the treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). In studies conducted by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), 88% of participants with severe PTSD experienced a significant reduction in their symptoms and 67% no longer met criteria for PTSD only two months after their treatment.

The question remains, why is the treatment so effective? What is it about the combination of psychedelic medicine and psychotherapy that is so profoundly healing?

One possible theory is that psychedelic medicines offer the user an opportunity to look at difficult or traumatic experiences through a new lens that they have never had before. A psychedelic experience can potentially slow down the experience of time, engender feelings of safety and compassion, provide profound experiences of meaning and purpose and foster or deepen a connection to a higher power. Many of these experiences when applied to processing an old wound or trauma can have a profoundly healing impact.

Case Vignette:

John Doe is a veteran who has seen horrors that most of us cannot imagine. He has spent the better part of his adult years struggling with recurring nightmares, intrusive thoughts and strong feelings of survivor guilt and shame. He lives alone, avoids most people when he can and spends most of his time ruminating about what he should have done differently in his life.

At the behest of his family, John has tried traditional psychotherapy, but has gotten so overwhelmed by symptoms of panic and flashbacks, that he quits. It is too painful to talk about and he assumes it won’t help.

However, when John was given the opportunity to participate in an MDMA assisted therapy session, he was intrigued. He had been hearing more and more about how psychedelics could help with trauma but was afraid to feel hopeful. He had been resigned to feeling this way for so long. He agreed to give it a try.

While taking MDMA, John felt an alert state of consciousness, yet he felt calm and safe in a way that he had not felt for years. He felt at peace and relaxed. When he was gently guided to recall aspects of his past, he did not resist or feel panic like he had before. He was able to recall the events with a certain kind of distance. He could understand now that he was just doing what he could to survive. He could see now for the first time in his life that his so called “enemies” were also doing what they could to survive. He began to realize how true that was for all of the world. After that initial session of MDMA assisted therapy, John was then able to engage in traditional therapy in a way he never could before.

Although many researchers and therapists are aware of how profoundly helpful these medicines can be, there is still a great deal of stigma associated with these medicines. Because these medicines are still illegal in the United States, desperate patients are either travelling to other countries or are finding therapists who are privately using these medicines through “word of mouth”.

The Food and Drug Administration gave approval for certain psychedelic medicines to be researched, as long as they were held to the same standards as other pharmaceutical medications. This has led to a resurgence of new studies showing the safety and efficacy of psychedelic medicines for a multitude of mental health conditions. It is projected that several psychedelic medicines (including psilocybin and MDMA) will become legal and available for therapeutic use within the next one to two years.

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By: Jennifer B. Wilcox, PsyD
Staff Psychologist, OCD and Anxiety Disorders Program

 

 

 

 

What is compulsive hoarding?

Hoarding Disorder is a psychiatric illness and is considered to be a subtype of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – 5th Edition (DSM-5) defines Hoarding Disorder (HD) as:

Persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value. This difficulty is due to a perceived need to save the items and to the distress associated with discarding them.

The difficulty of discarding possessions results in the accumulation of possessions that congest and clutter active living areas and substantially compromises their intended use.

The hoarding causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (including maintaining a safe environment for self and others).

The hoarding is not attributable to another medical condition and is not better explained by another mental disorder.

 

 

 

 

 

 

How is compulsive hoarding different from normal clutter or collections?

It is not uncommon for people to acquire a few extra possessions from time to time, resulting in occasional clutter. However, while normal clutter or collecting doesn’t usually interfere with a person’s daily functioning, compulsive hoarding often does. Compulsive hoarding also differs from normal clutter or collecting as it tends to become unmanageable, overwhelming, and causes significant distress or family discord. Though collections usually bring people joy and fill them with pride, hoarding often comes with shame and embarrassment.

Why do people hoard things?

Compulsive hoarding is thought to result from a combination of factors including genetics, environmental factors, life experiences, and learned behaviors. The reason one person hoards may not be the same as the reason someone else hoards. Some people who hoard are compulsive shoppers and acquire more things than they need or have room to accommodate. Others may have difficulty categorizing or making decisions about what to do with particular items. Sometimes they can’t remember what they own or where it is, leading to the purchase of duplicate items. Other times people hold on to possessions for emotional or sentimental reasons or get anxious when they discard things. Some people believe that the hoarded items may be useful someday and keep the items despite not needing them currently. The level of insight a person has about their struggles in these areas can vary widely from completely absent insight to good insight.

What types of things do people hoard?

The types of items a person hoards vary based on factors such as the reason they are hoarding and how severe their hoarding issues have become. Some commonly hoarded items include books, newspapers, magazines, boxes, bottles, clothes, food, items purchased in bulk, collectibles or vintage items, furniture, animals, or digital media.

How many people suffer from Hoarding Disorder and who does it affect?

While the exact prevalence of people who suffer from Hoarding Disorder is not certain, it is estimated that it affects approximately 2.5% of the general population. Studies have shown that prevalence rates in men and women are nearly equal and appear to be consistent across developed countries. Most studies report onset between 15 and 19 years of age and show a chronic course over the lifespan.

What is the treatment for Hoarding Disorder?

Hoarding Disorder is treated using Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), a type of therapy that allows someone to work with a therapist to shift their thinking patterns and change their behavioral patterns to healthier ones. Randomized controlled trials have shown this to be an effective treatment for hoarding. While the data on the efficacy of medication for Hoarding Disorder is limited, there is some evidence to support the use of medication in the treatment of this disorder. For those hoarders who have limited insight, a Motivational Interviewing (MI) approach can help to foster their motivation and confidence. Finally, working on skills that improve the hoarder’s ability to maintain attention and focus, categorize items, and decision-making can be beneficial in treating Hoarding Disorder.

What can I do to help a loved one who seems to have issues with compulsive hoarding?

It is generally not recommended for family and friends to discard hoarded items without the hoarder’s permission. This can be extremely distressing for a compulsive hoarder and tends to make them upset, anxious, or angry. Instead, it is recommended that friends and family talk to their loved ones about their concerns and help them to seek professional treatment. Additional resources are available at the International Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Foundation (IOCDF) and the Anxiety and Depression Association of America (ADAA).

Resources:

American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition. American Psychiatric Association Publishing, Arlington, VA.

Treatment of Hoarding Disorder

https://instituteofliving.org/programs-services/anxiety-disorders-center/what-we-treat-at-the-adc/compulsive-hoarding

https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/hoarding-disorder/what-is-hoarding-disorder

Postlethwaite, A., Kellett, S., Mataix-Cols, D., 2019. Prevalence of Hoarding Disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 256, 309-316.

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The role of the circadian system in obesity and disordered eating

By Nicole Mori Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner

The circadian system is the body’s endogenous timekeeper, a network of hierarchically-organized structures (“clocks” or “oscillators”) in nucleated cells, which regulates a variety of biological processes (including the cell cycle, metabolism, growth, development and sleep/activity cycles) by generating outputs in a rhythmical manner. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus acts as the “master” pacemaker by generating periodic outputs targeting clocks in peripheral cells. The endogenous SCN period is greater than 24 hours, but it resets every day in response to environmental signals.  The main  synchronizer for the SCN is the periodical light/dark signal over the course of 24 hours.  Additional environmental synchronizers include feeding and social activity.  The circadian system enables  organisms to adapt to environmental changes and optimize function, playing a central role in the maintenance of health and illness.  Research has linked circadian dysregulation to a variety of disorders including cancer, cardiovascular disease, metabolic abnormalities and obesity in humans and animals.

Recent studies support the role of circadian dysfunction in the development and maintenance of obesity.  Circadian misalignment can manifest as metabolic abnormalities, sleep disturbances, delayed sleep phase (evening preference), abnormalities in daily rest/activity rhythms and disordered eating patterns. Both endogenous (e.g., genetic) and exogenous factors are involved in circadian dysfunction. External factors include decreased sleep duration, jet lag, frequent snacking and nighttime eating and exposure to bright light. Epidemiological data show shift work is an independent risk factor for obesity and increased metabolic risk. Decreased sleep duration is associated with increased risk for obesity and metabolic disease. Among children, sleep loss is associated with the development of obesity and is a predictor of lifelong obesity. The increasing prevalence of obesity in recent decades has coincided with trends such as shortened sleep duration, light pollution, increased nighttime exposure to bright light and increasing shift work.

Sleep pattern changes affect appetite and eating behaviors and vice versa. Sleep restriction has been associated with changes in circadian hormonal patterns, which result in increased appetite, hunger and food choices such as increased preference for sweets.  In turn, alterations in eating patterns have a dysregulating effect on the circadian system. For instance, overeating has been associated with decreased sleep duration, high dietary fat and carbohydrate intake with decreased short wave sleep and high increased nighttime arousal respectively.

The timing of food consumption plays an important role in metabolism and body weight. Nighttime eating leads to increased insulin resistance and worsened glucose tolerance and lipid levels than meals consumed during the daytime. Among bariatric patients, eating late in the day has been associated with less post-operative weight loss.  In addition, irregular eating patterns are associated with abnormal weight gain, increased binge eating and greater eating disorder severity. Conversely, appropriate timing of eating and regularization of meal times appear to have a beneficial effect. Animal studies show that time restricted feeding (limiting feedings to a timeframe appropriate to the species’ diurnal/nocturnal pattern) is associated with decreased obesity. Among humans, an app study showed an association between time-restricted feeding and sustained weight loss.

As we have seen, the regulation of metabolism and body weight appear to depend on the optimal function of the circadian system, which requires appropriately timed exposure to synchronizing stimuli. Interventional studies suggest that manipulation of synchronizers may be beneficial in treating disordered eating behaviors, metabolic abnormalities and obesity. Potential interventions for circadian dysfunction would optimize the timing of synchronizers (such as bright light therapy, timing of food intake and time-restricting feeding), regularize rest/activity circadian rhythms (by increasing regular exercise, maintain a consistent waking up schedule), or the administration of medications according to circadian phase. The treatment of circadian dysfunction promises improved outcomes in the prevention and treatment of obesity, but further research is needed.  New technologies and methods will enable a thorough characterization of circadian function is obesity and eating disorders and determine whether the circadian system is a potential target for chronotherapeutic interventions.

The Lindner Center of HOPE is conducting a comprehensive study of circadian function in adults with obesity with and without binge eating disorder.  For more information, contact Brian or George at (513) 536-0707 or visit http://www.lcoh.info

Bibliography

Broussard, J. L., & Van Cauter, E. (2016). Disturbances of sleep and circadian rhythms: novel risk factors for obesity. Current opinion in endocrinology, diabetes, and obesity, 23(5), 353-359.

Garaulet, M., Gómez-Abellán, P., Alburquerque-Béjar, J. J., Lee, Y. C., Ordovás, J. M., & Scheer, F. A. (2013). Timing of food intake predicts weight loss effectiveness. International journal of obesity, 37(4),
604-611.

self-esteem and self-worth in our youth will bring about numerous long-lasting, positive changes that Cupid’s arrow could only dream of creating.

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By Elizabeth Mariutto, PsyD, CEDS, Clinical Director of Eating Disorder Services

“How do I encourage mindful eating for my kids?” I often have patients come in with histories of well-intended parents who promoted diets or restrictive eating in the attempts to help their kids become “healthy.” When they come to me to rewire their brains against the diet culture so prevalent in our society, they feel like they don’t know where to start in promoting more beneficial attitudes towards food in their own kids. Here are ten tips for promoting positive food habits in kids.

  1. Set up your home to promote balanced nutrition. Buy a variety of produce, serve meals with a balance of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and while you can definitely have some sweets and packaged snack foods, having too many of these options can lead to turning to these items often. Serve unfamiliar foods with familiar foods, and introduce new foods multiple times. Encourage family mealtimes at the table without electronics.
  2. Allow them to trust their bodies. Think about how we feed babies and small children. Every 3 to 4 hours, they cry and tell us they are hungry. We feed them until they stop eating. If children tell you they are full after a meal, don’t force them to finish their plate. This only teaches them that it’s pointless to follow hunger and fullness cues.
  3. Avoid labeling foods as “good” or “bad” or “healthy” or “unhealthy.” Avoid overtly controlling food messages, such as putting pressure on kids to eat fruits and vegetables or telling them they can’t have sweets, as these practices lead to unhealthy eating habits for kids (Scaglioni, Arrizza, Vecchni, & Tedeschmi, 2011).
  4. Serve items for meals that you would like kids to eat at regular times, making sure there is something you know they like on the table. Don’t worry about what they end up choosing to eat.
  5. Avoid rewarding, bribing, or soothing kids with food. Yes, that includes bribing kids for eating their veggies with dessert! Research has found kids consume less of a food and rate them as less tasty if they were presented as instrumental to a goal (Maimaran & Fishback, 2014), and rewarding with food is associated with emotional eating later in childhood (Farrow, Haycraft, & Blisset, 2015). Additionally, teach kids to learn to cope with their emotions in other ways.
  6. Promote body acceptance. Some kids are naturally smaller, some kids are naturally bigger. And that is ok! Weight-related comments are really not necessary at all, and often harmful. Additionally, avoid holding different standards for children of different sizes. Encourage a balanced, “everything in moderation” approach to eating for all children.
  7. Practice what we preach! Be a good role model for body acceptance and positive attitudes towards food. Those little ears are listening! Sure, go out for ice cream sometimes. And avoid criticizing your body or telling yourself you have to work out to get rid of the calories from eating that ice cream. Prioritize sitting down to eat and having regular, balanced meals and snacks.
  8. Encourage healthy activity without tying this to food or weight. Help kids find activities that they truly enjoy, and focus on the value of exercise to help our bodies become stronger, improve our mood, and nourish.
  9. Teach kids to savor food. Help them be selective in choosing which dessert sounds the best, and demonstrate taking slow bites to truly relish them.
  10. If they, or you, mess up, treat this with compassion. No one is perfect, and we don’t need to beat ourselves, or others, up about our mistakes.

Farrow, C. V., Haycraft, E., & Blissett, J. M. (2015). Teaching our children when to eat: How parental feeding practices inform the development of emotional eating—a longitudinal experiential design.  American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 101, 908-13.

Jacobsen, M. (2016). How to Raise a Mindful Eater. Middletown, DE: First Printing.

Maimaran, M., & Fishbach, A. (2014).  If it’s useful and you know it, do you eat? Preschoolers refrain from instrumental food.  Journal of Consumer Research, 41, doi:10.1086/677224

Scaglioni, S., Arrizza, C., Vecchni, F., & Tedeschmi, S. (2011). Determinants of children’s eating behaviors. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94, 6. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.001685

Tribole, E. & Resch, E. (2012). Intuitive eating: A revolutionary program that works. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin.